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| CONVENTIONS & TREATIES | |
| News I Publications I Case Studies I NGO's I Govt. Deptt . I Database I Issues I Policy Matters I Agenda 21 | |
Second International Conference on Climate Change & Tourism
Djerba Declaration on Tourism and Climate Change
International conventions for the protection of cultural or natural heritage signed or ratified by the State Party: • CITES - 1973 • Ramsar Convention- 1971 • Convention on Biological Diversity- 1992 • Convention on Conservation Of Migratory Species Of Wild Animals - 1979 • Convention on Conservation Of Antarctic Marine Living Resources – 1980 • Convention on The Law Of The Sea – 1982 • Convention on Climatic Change – 1992 • Convention on Desertification - 1994
A Summary of the Major Documents Signed at the Earth Summit And The Global ForumBY EDWARD A. PARSON, PETER M. HAAS AND MARC A. LEVY Two parallel conferences on environment and development held in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, this past June produced a vast array of documents.1 Although these conferences were well attended by the media,2 it is difficult to access the cornucopia of information generated. This summary of the major documents produced during the meetings is intended to facilitate Environment's readers' access to the information. The formal 12-day conference of government delegations, called the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED) was held at the RioCentro convention center in Rio's outskirts. The conference--which culminated a process of preparatory negotiations that included four major international meetings of the Preparatory Committee or "PrepCom"--concluded with a two-day summit by many ministers and heads of state, the true "Earth Summit." During these meetings, consensus was reached on the language of certain unresolved issues, so that brackets within the text, used to indicate disagreement about phrasing, were removed. Simultaneous to UNCED, a large gathering of nongovernmental organizations (NGOs) was held in Flamengo Park, 40 kilometers from the RioCentro conference site, under the umbrella title of the Global Forum. The Global Forum was a mixture of extensive NGO networking, street fair, trade show, political demonstration, and general events, and it involved about 18,000 participants, plus more than 200,000 local residents who visited the site during the conference. Although there were attempts to coordinate the more formal UNCED conference and the Global Forum, the distance between them posed great difficulties to anyone who wished to participate in both. For more details about the two conferences, see the article "Appraising the Earth Summit: How Should We Judge UNCED's Success?" beginning on page 6 of this issue. The formal intergovernmental UNCED process yielded five documents signed by heads of state: the "Rio Declaration," a statement of broad principles to guide national conduct on environmental protection and development; treaties on climate change and biodiversity; a statement of forest principles; and "Agenda 21," a massive document presenting detailed workplans for sustainable development, including goals, responsibilities, and estimates for funding. The Rio Declaration The Rio Declaration was originally conceived of as an "Earth Charter," a statement of environmental principles for national behavior. During the PrepCom meetings, developing countries insisted that a balance be established between environmental principles and those relating to development. Although the resultant compromise declaration is less inspiring and coherent than its original proponents had hoped, its 27 principles include key elements of the political agendas of both industrialized and developing countries. Principles in the document include a state's sovereign right to exploit its own resources in accordance with its own policies, without harming the environment elsewhere (principle 2); the right to development (principle 3); environmental protection as an integral part of development (principle 4); sustainable development that requires reducing "unsustainable patterns of production and consumption," and that promotes "appropriate demographic policies" (principle 8); access to information and citizen participation (principle 10); the precautionary principle (principle 15); and the polluter pays principle, including the internalization of costs and the use of economic instruments (principle 16). Although the Rio Declaration was the only unbracketed text to emerge from the final PrepCom meeting, rumors spread throughout UNCED that the United States government would reopen negotiations on the declaration. The strongest U.S. objection was to principle 23, which called for protection of the environmental and natural resources of "people under oppression, domination, and occupation." In a late compromise involving the United States, Israel, and the Arab states, this phrase was retained in the declaration but all references to people under occupation were removed from Agenda 21. The United States accommodated its other objections by issuing a statement of its reservations to several principles, including the right to development, which it said could be used to justify human-rights violations, and the principle of "differentiated responsibilities." Convention on Climate Change Because of UNCED's political prominence, many other international environmental debates were merged into the process, such as those of the conventions on climate change and biodiversity, which were not negotiated at UNCED or in the PrepCom meetings but were signed in Rio following separate negotiations. Formal international discussion of a convention on climate change began in 1988 with the establishment of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), an advisory body of scientists and officials that assessed comprehensively climate science, impacts, and response strategies. IPCC served as a forum for "prenegotiation," because many of its participants expected it to be followed by formal negotiations under the same authority. Instead, the UN General Assembly passed a resolution in December 1990 that established the Intergovernmental Negotiating Committee (INC). After five negotiating sessions, however, discussions stalled between the United States and other industrialized countries, particularly those of the European Community, which argued that the convention should contain specific commitments to limit emissions of carbon dioxide--at present the largest contributor to human-induced changes in radiative forcing--to 1990 levels by 2000. The United States argued that such limits were premature and lacked sufficient scientific evidence and that any controls should be enacted comprehensively on all gases contributing to climate change. INC chairman Jean Ripert of France broke the deadlock last May by drafting a compromise document that requires industrialized countries to develop national emission limits and emission inventories and to report periodically on their progress, without targets or dates. Instead of detailed commitments, the countries would accept a circuitously worded goal of returning their greenhouse-gas emissions to "earlier levels" by the turn of the century. All the major participants accepted the convention, which was finalized on 9 May 1992, so that there would be a treaty to sign in Rio. Although the treaty lacks specific emission targets, it contains a very strong objective: "stabilization of greenhouse-gas concentrations in the atmosphere at a level that would prevent dangerous anthropogenic interference with the climate system . . . within a time frame sufficient to allow ecosystems to adapt naturally."3 The convention establishes a financial assistance mechanism to support its implementation in developing countries, to be administered by the Global Environmental Facility on an interim basis. Also, the convention established institutional mechanisms for periodic review and an update of commitments, including the scheduling of regular conferences. Finally, two new subsidiary bodies were established by the treaty, one on science and technology and one on implementation. Like IPCC but unlike the Montreal protocol, membership in these bodies is restricted to government representatives. Representatives from 153 countries signed the climate convention in Rio, though only 50 ratifications were needed. Convention on Biodiversity Discussions for a convention on biological diversity, or biodiversity, which concluded on 22 May 1992 in Nairobi, were initiated in 1988 by the United Nations Environment Programme's (UNEP) Governing Council. The issues of biodiversity and biotechnology were originally treated by separate working groups, but were merged to be handled by a single intergovernmental negotiating committee in 1991, over the objections of the United States and other nations. The treaty has three goals: the conservation and sustainable use of biological diversity, and the fair sharing of products made from genestocks. To advance these goals, the signatories must develop plans for protecting habitat and species; provide funds and technology to help developing countries provide protection; ensure commercial access to biological resources for development and share revenues fairly among source countries and developers; and establish safety regulations and accept liability for risks associated with biotechnology development. Financial assistance, initially set at $200 million, will ultimately be channeled through some mechanism under the control of the signatories but will be administered by the Global Environmental Facility on an interim basis. The negotiations were plagued by conflict over the financial mechanism, the sharing of benefits, and biotechnology regulation. France originally threatened not to sign the treaty because it did not include a list of global biodiversity-rich regions; Japan threatened not to sign because it feared biotechnology regulation. At the last moment, both relented, and only the United States refused to sign the treaty because officials felt that the financial mechanism represented an open-ended commitment with insufficient oversight and control; that the benefit-sharing provisions were incompatible with existing international regimes for intellectual property rights; and that the requirement to regulate the biotechnology industry would needlessly stifle innovation. Although only 30 ratifications were needed for it to enter into force, 153 nations signed the convention in Rio. Forest Principles When an early attempt to negotiate a treaty on the protection of global forests failed, the PrepCom added a legally nonbinding declaration on forests to its own agenda. The UN Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) had discussed a forest treaty before the establishment of UNCED and recommended in November 1990 that a treaty be concluded in time for UNCED. Organized treaty negotiations never got under way, however, in part because governments widely mistrusted FAO but lacked an alternative forum. Early UNCED PrepComs discussed the possibility of a forest treaty but were inhibited by strong differences between industrialized countries, which wanted a treaty focusing on tropical rain forests, and developing countries, led by Malaysia, which insisted on the inclusion of temperate and boreal forests. The statement of 17 nonbinding principles negotiated at the last moment in Rio explicitly includes all types of forests. The most contentious issue at UNCED was whether a forest treaty should be created. Although some delegations advocated adding a statement to the forest principles that either explicitly called for or excluded a future treaty, the final document merely commits governments to keeping the principles "under assessment for their adequacy with regard to further international cooperation on forest issues."4 Agenda 21 Agenda 21 is the only document signed at UNCED that attempts to embrace the entire environment and development agenda. It is also the largest product of UNCED, comprising 40 chapters and 800 pages and states goals and priorities regarding a dozen major resource, environmental, social, legal, financial, and institutional issues. Each chapter contains a description of a program and its cost estimate. Agenda 21 is not a legally binding document but a "work plan," or "agenda for action," with a political commitment to pursue a set of goals. It may become "soft law," if, as is likely, the UN General Assembly adopts it as a resolution this fall. Agenda 21 includes estimates of the annual costs of its programs in developing countries from 1993 to 2000, of which about $125 billion per year will come from the industrialized countries. Although it may be only soft law, the contentious negotiation of many parts of Agenda 21 underscores its importance to the signatories. Most of the text of Agenda 21 was finalized at the last PrepCom meeting in April. The remaining text was left to be negotiated at UNCED by eight informal "contact groups" that addressed the most contentious issues: atmosphere, biodiversity and biotechnology, finance, forests, freshwater resources, institutions, legal instruments, and technology transfer. The chapters of Agenda 21 are divided into four major headings, plus a preamble. The following is a list of the chapters and a brief summary for each of some of the most significant decisions and negotiations. Preamble (Chapter 1) Although the preamble contains no substantive provisions, its language figured in three controversies. Saudi and Kuwaiti delegations had insisted on including the words "safe and" in the phrase "environmentally safe and sound energy systems" to avoid the perception that the document favored nuclear power. As a compromise, the words were eventually removed from all other sections except the preamble, which states that references to "environmentally sound" energy systems in fact mean "safe and sound." In another incident, references to "people under occupation" were retained in the Rio Declaration but removed from Agenda 21, though an addition to the preamble states that implementation of Agenda 21 would respect all principles in the declaration. Finally, a reference to "economies in transition" was retained in the preamble but deleted elsewhere. Section 1: Social and Economic Dimensions Chapter 2: Accelerating Sustainable Development in Developing Countries. Although largely an uncontroversial discussion of the relationship between international economies, national policies, and sustainable development, the chapter's text required some negotiation on whether the contribution to development by the international economic environment or by domestic policies would be emphasized more. Chapter 3: Combating Poverty. Chapter 3 consists of uncontroversial statements on the need to eradicate poverty and hunger and to manage natural resources sustainably with regard for the people who depend on them for their livelihood. Chapter 4: Changing Consumption Patterns. In chapter 4, the relationship between present patterns of production and consumption in industrialized countries and sustainable development is discussed diplomatically. Chapter 5: Demographic Dynamics. An equally tactful discussion of population issues is found in this chapter. A phrase from chapter 5, "demographic dynamics and policies," became UNCED's standard phrase for population. Chapter 6: Human Health. Chapter 6 discusses the need for intersectorial efforts to link human health to environmental and socioeconomic improvements. Chapter 7: Sustainable Human Settlements. Chapter 7 contains an uncontroversial discussion of the sustainable development of cities in both the industrialized and developing worlds. Chapter 8: Integrating Environment and Development in Decisionmaking. The need to integrate environmental factors into policymaking, law, economic instruments, and national accounting is discussed in chapter 8. Section 2: Conservation and Management of Resources for Development Chapter 9: Atmosphere. This chapter promotes understanding of and effective action to combat climate change, ozone depletion, and transboundary air pollution. There were difficult negotiations on two matters: references to the desirability of developing new and renewable energy sources, which were retained, and the phrase "environmentally safe and sound energy systems." Because of the outcome of these two controversies, the Saudi delegation entered a formal reservation to this chapter, which is of little significance because Agenda 21 is not legally binding in any case. Chapter 10: Integrated Planning and Management of Land Resources. This chapter's discussion focuses on the need to allocate land to uses that provide the greatest sustainable benefits. Chapter 11: Combating Deforestation. Because of conflict over the need for a forest treaty, the text of chapter 11, similar to that used in the Forest Principles document, neither promotes nor excludes negotiations toward a treaty. Chapter 12: Combating Desertification and Drought. After the United States dropped its early objection to this chapter, delegations agreed to begin negotiations toward a convention on desertification to be convened by 1994. Chapter 13: Sustainable Mountain Development. Chapter 13 discusses the need for proper management of mountain resources, for information about mountain ecosystems, and for integrated development of mountain watersheds. Chapter 14: Promoting Sustainable Agriculture and Rural Development. This chapter contains an uncontroversial discussion of the importance of, and criteria for, environmentally sound and sustainable production of food and fiber. Chapter 15: Conservation of Biological Diversity. There were surprisingly difficult negotiations over several questions that had been resolved by the biodiversity convention, including the sharing of benefits from exploitation of genetic resources and technology transfer. The language of chapter 15 is similar to that used in the treaty. Chapter 16: Environmentally Sound Management of Biotechnology. Chapter 16 centers on discussion of the need for safety procedures, codes of conduct, and liability and compensation provisions for the biotechnology industry. Also discussed is the rights of indigenous peoples to share in the benefits from the commercial exploitation of their knowledge and practices. Chapter l7: Oceans and Their Living Resources. The single issue in this chapter that remained to be resolved at UNCED was exploitation of straddling and migratory fish stocks. Sharp division was created between Canada and the European Community because of their disagreement over the fate of North Atlantic cod stocks. Negotiators agreed to address this issue in a separate UN conference, whose agenda would promote implementation of the relevant provisions of the Law of the Sea. Chapter 18: Freshwater Resources. Chapter 18 discusses the importance of integrated management of water resources and includes a provision on safe drinking-water supply and sanitation. Chapter 19: Toxic Chemicals. This chapter covers the need for better information on and risk assessment and management of toxic chemicals, including the need for prevention of illegal international traffic. Chapter 20: Hazardous Wastes. The one contentious phrase in this chapter, which discusses the need for sound management of hazardous wastes, concerned the environmental impacts of military establishments. The United States had bracketed this section for reasons of national security. After some consultation, all delegations agreed that governments should determine that their militaries conform to national norms in the treatment and disposal of hazardous wastes. Chapter 21: Solid Wastes and Sewage. Chapter 21 contains a discussion of the minimization, recycling, and environmentally sound disposal of solid waste and sewage. Chapter 22: Radioactive Wastes. The need for safe management, transport, storage, and disposal of radioactive wastes is discussed in chapter 22. Controversy over the issue of ocean disposal of radioactive wastes was resolved by inclusion of the statement that countries will cooperate with international organizations to determine the risk of such disposal. Section 3: Strengthening the Role of Major Groups This section contains chapters 23-32 and consists entirely of statements on the importance of each of the following nongovernmental sectors in implementing sustainable development: women; children and youths; indigenous peoples; NGOs; local authorities; trade unions; business and industry; science and technology; and farmers. Section 4: Means of Implementation
Chapter 33: Financial Resources and Mechanisms. Negotiations for this chapter were the most difficult of the conference. The three major issues discussed are a target and deadline for an increase in total official development assistance (ODA); the level of replenishment of the concessionary branch of the World Bank, the International Development Agency (IDA); and the governance of the Global Environmental Facility (GEF). The question of total ODA was resolved by the statement that industrialized nations "reaffirm" their commitment to the UN target of ODA equal to 0.7 percent of donor gross national product. Thus, no new obligation is imposed on those industrialized countries that never "affirmed" the UN goal. The level of IDA replenishment was not resolved during discussions at UNCED, and additional donor funding for an explicit "Earth increment" to the fund was not instituted. World Bank President Lewis Preston proposed that the next scheduled IDA replenishment should maintain the present level in real terms, which would require funding of about $17.5 billion over the period 1993 to 1995. He also suggested that the bank allocate an additional $1.2 billion from its interest income. Furthermore, the UNCED delegations recommended changing the structure of GEF to give developing countries more power. Chapter 34: Transfer of Environmentally Sound Technology. Disputes over appropriate terms for technology transfers were resolved by the inclusion in this chapter of such statements as enhanced access to technology should be "promoted, facilitated, and financed as appropriate," and that states should take measures to prevent the abuse of intellectual property rights. Chapter 35: Science for Sustainable Development. Chapter 35 covers the use of scientific knowledge in sustainable development and resource management and includes calls for a wide variety of environment-related monitoring activities, such as collecting data on international trade; collecting environmental, economic, and social data; monitoring forests; monitoring global biogeochemical and hydrological cycles; observing and studying global sources and sinks of greenhouse gases; monitoring marine and terrestrial systems; collecting data from satellite missions; predicting ecosystem responses to short- and long-term perturbations; studying the role of biodiversity in the functioning of ecosystems; developing a global observation system for freshwater and mountain systems, especially in developing countries; and conducting surveys and opinion polls of populations. Chapter 36: Education, Public Awareness, and Training. This chapter discusses promoting public awareness of environmental issues through education and training.
Chapter 37: Cooperation for Capacity Building in Developing Countries. Chapter 37 discusses building capacity for implementing Agenda 21 in developing countries. Chapter 38: International Institutional Arrangements. This chapter discusses the establishment of the Sustainable Development Commission, a new UN body under the Economic and Social Council, to coordinate the pursuit of sustainable development among international organizations and to monitor progress by governments and international organizations toward the goals of Agenda 21. Several important organizational questions regarding the commission were deferred to the fall meeting of the UN General Assembly: the authority, reporting structure, location, and membership of the commission; the relationship between participation by representatives of governments and NGOs; the size and resources of the secretariat; and the formality and prominence of national reports to the commission. Chapter 39: International Legal Instruments and Mechanisms. This chapter is controversial because of its discussion of such issues as the "environmental crimes" provision on deliberate large-scale environmental destruction, environmental standards as trade barriers, compliance with international agreements, and dispute prevention. A dispute arose over whether use of the phrase "environmental crimes" should be confined to times of war or used more generally. Many developing countries argued that general use would infringe on their sovereignty by allowing UN agents to scrutinize domestic environmental practices. The United States also favored restricting the provision to wartime use because broader use of the term would undermine ongoing UN negotiations on the law of war. Ultimately, the provision was restricted to wartime use. The trade dispute was settled by inclusion of the statement that environmental policies should not result in unnecessary trade restrictions, but if they do, the measure should be nondiscriminatory and transparent, should restrict trade as little as possible, and should consider the special conditions of developing countries. The issues of compliance and dispute prevention were both settled by the use of weaker language; thus, "effective, full, and prompt implementation" was used instead of compliance, and the phrase "dispute avoidance" was substituted for dispute prevention. Chapter 40: Information for DecisionMaking. The final chapter discusses the importance of collecting and using information for sustainable development and for implementing Agenda 21. Products of NGOs An enormous volume of information, too vast to catalog, was produced by NGOs at both UNCED and the Global Forum. The two major products of the parallel NGO event were the NGO treaty-writing project of the International NGO Forum and a book on sustainable development initiatives in business and industry published by the Business Council for Sustainable Development. NGO Treaties Preparations for the NGO treaty-writing project took about one year. Following the Global NGO Conference in Paris in December 1991, an international committee coordinated local and regional consultations via a computer network and meetings during the spring of 1992. After the New York PrepCom in March and April 1992, several committees prepared draft treaties to form the starting point for discussions at the forum. The architects of the project conceived of the treaties primarily as agreements among citizen's groups, representing concrete statements of what participating NGOs would do, rather than as manifestos or model treaties for governments. About 30 treaties were planned, including some that paralleled UNCED issues and others that addressed issues that UNCED excluded or treated perfunctorily, such as debt, transnational corporations, racism, women, trade, and alternative economic models. The treaties were intended to be finalized in the first week of the forum for signing by the heads of state at UNCED. The original agenda of treaties to be drafted included an "Earth Charter"--an alternative document parallel to the Rio Declaration with principles for sustainable development--and a set of treaties grouped into five cluster issues: NGO cooperation and institution building, alternative economic issues, major environmental issues, food production, and cross-sectorial issues. The drafting process was open-ended and participants were permitted to add to the list. The project faced many organizational problems. The quality of the treaties produced and the magnitude of participation were highly uneven--the number of participants ranged from about a dozen in some treaties to more than a thousand in others--and the drafters rarely stuck to the original goals of the project. Although some treaties focus on commitments to NGO action, others are largely theoretical statements or denunciations of present policies or, at worst, rhetorical manifestos. The following is a list of the treaties that were completed by the last day of the Global Forum. * Earth Charter. This document contains a short statement of eight principles and a preamble and is intended to parallel the Rio Declaration of governments. * NGO Cooperation and Institution- Building Cluster. This cluster contains treaties on technology, the NGO code of conduct, NGO cooperation and sharing of resources, NGO global decisionmaking, poverty, the treaty of the people of the Americas, and communication, information, media, and networking. This cluster includes the most concrete proposals for NGO action, including measures for formalized international networking and sharing of technical, informational, and financial resources. The treaty on sharing of resources includes a pledge to share 1 percent of annual budgets among NGOs. * Alternative Economic Issues Cluster. This cluster includes treaties on alternative economic models, transnational corporations, trade, debt, and consumption and lifestyle. This cluster consists principally of theoretical critiques of present economic systems and calls for citizen mobilization to pressure governments. The transnational corporation treaty includes concrete pledges to create regional information clearinghouses and a book of case studies. The consumption treaty presents a detailed action plan, based on the descending hierarchy of "revalue, restructure, redistribute, reduce, reuse, recycle." * Major Environmental Issues Cluster. This cluster contains treaties on climate, forests, biodiversity and biotechnology, energy, oceans, and toxic and nuclear wastes. * Food Production Cluster. This cluster includes treaties on sustainable agriculture, food security, freshwater, and fisheries. The treaties in these latter two clusters consist mainly of statements of principles and plans for political action. The climate treaty primarily concentrates on carbon dioxide emissions and calls for developing countries to reduce emissions by 25 percent by 2005 and by 60 percent ultimately; "currently available nuclear technology" and emissions-trading schemes are excluded. Texts of the forests and oceans treaties were not available by the end of the forum. * Cross-Sectorial Issues Cluster. This cluster includes treaties on racism, militarism, women's issues, population, youths, environmental education, urbanization, and indigenous peoples. These treaties constitute a diverse selection of general principles and concrete citizen's actions. Most stress the links between environment, development, and other political issues. The indigenous peoples treaty is a code of conduct for interactions between NGOs and indigenous peoples and includes provisions for consultation, community development, and sharing of resources. Business Council on Sustainable Development The second major product of the parallel NGO events was the Business Council on Sustainable Development's book Changing Course, which discusses the need for sustainable development as an opportunity for business.5 The bulk of the book consists of 38 case studies of successful business initiatives for sustainable development. Access to Documentation The United Nations published the drafts of Agenda 21, the Rio Declaration, and the Forest Principles after the fourth PrepCom meeting, prior to the final revisions made at UNCED. Summaries of the national reports prepared for UNCED also have been published by the United Nations in three volumes.6 A much larger and more up-to-date selection of UNCED documents can be obtained through the Econet computer network. The Econet conference "en.unced.docum" contains official UNCED documents, including Agenda 21. Other Econet conferences contain official Climate Change Convention documents and a limited number of documents relating to the Biodiversity Convention. Econet contains many NGO documents of relevance to UNCED, including the ECO newsletters, the "Earth Summit Bulletin," and the NGO treaties. Access to Econet requires a computer, a telephone line, a modem, and a subscription fee. Econet can be contacted at the Institute for Global Communications, 3228 Sacramento Street, San Francisco, California 94115; (415) 442-0220. Outside of the United States, Econet conferences are accessible from members of the Association for Progressive Communications (APC). For information on APC, contact APC Secretariat, Alternex-IBASE, Rua Vicente de Souza 29, 22251 Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. Computer diskettes containing up-to-date versions of Agenda 21, the Forest Principles, the Rio Declaration, the Biodiversity Convention, and the Climate Change Convention are available from Econet at a cost of $10 for NGOs and individuals and $50 for corporations. Texts of the Biodiversity and Climate Change conventions will be published in such legal sources as the International Environment Reporter published by the Bureau of National Affairs in Washington, D.C., and in International Legal Materials. Summaries of the first 40 national reports have been published by the United Nations, as Nations of the Earth Report: Volume I. Volumes II and III, containing the remainder of the reports, will be published in 1993. The Consortium for International Earth Science Information Network (CIESIN) also is planning to make available the core UNCED documents on the Wide Area Information Server, accessible through the Internet, an international electronic network. For information about this free service, contact Steve Wise at CIESIN headquarters, 2250 Pierce Road, University Center, Michigan 48710 (telephone: 517-797-2671). Notes 1. Information presented here on the contents of Agenda 21 and other UNCED documents was partially drawn from the "Earth Summit Bulletins" produced daily during the conference. The bulletins are available on Econet, conference en.unced.general. 2. About half of the 8,000 media representatives were from Brazil. UNCED Secretariat, NGO Unit, "Facts and Figures on UNCED RIOCENTRO" (Press release, 12 June 1992). 3. UN Framework Convention on Climate Change, 9 May 1992, article 2. 4. UN doc. A/CONF.151/6/Rev.l, "Forest Principles," 13 June 1992. 5. S. Schmidheiny, Changing Course: A Global Business Perspective on Development and the Environment (Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 1992). 6. United Nations, Drafts Agenda 21, Rio Declaration, Forest Principles (New York: United Nations, 1992); and United Nations, Nations of the Earth Report: Volume I (New York: United Nations, 1992). EDWARD A. PARSON is an assistant professor of public policy at the John F. Kennedy School of Government at Harvard University in Cambridge, Massachusetts. PETER M. HAAS is an associate professor of political science at the University of Massachusetts at Amherst. MARC A. LEVY is an assistant professor of politics and international affairs at Princeton University in New Jersey. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS The authors are grateful to the Rockefeller Brothers Fund for providing support to attend UNC Québec Declaration on Ecotourism
In the framework of the UN International Year of Ecotourism, 2002, under the aegis of the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) and the World Tourism Organization (WTO), over one thousand participants coming from 132 countries, from the public, private and non-governmental sectors met at the World Ecotourism Summit, hosted in Québec City, Canada, by Tourisme Québec and the Canadian Tourism Commission, between 19 and 22 May 2002. The Québec Summit represented the culmination of 18 preparatory meetings held in 2001 and 2002, involving over 3,000 representatives from national and local governments including the tourism, environment and other administrations, private ecotourism businesses and their trade associations, non-governmental organizations, academic institutions and consultants, intergovernmental organizations, and indigenous and local communities. This document takes into account the preparatory process, as well as the discussions held during the Summit. It is the result of a multistakeholder dialogue, although it is not a negotiated document. Its main purpose is the setting of a preliminary agenda and a set of recommendations for the development of ecotourism activities in the context of sustainable development. The participants at the Summit acknowledge the World Summit on Sustainable Development (WSSD) in Johannesburg, August/September 2002, as the ground-setting event for international policy in the next 10 years, and emphasize that, as a leading industry, the sustainability of tourism should be a priority at WSSD due to its potential contribution to poverty alleviation and environmental protection in endangered ecosystems. Participants therefore request the UN, its organizations and member governments represented at this Summit to disseminate the following Declaration and other results from the World Ecotourism Summit at the WSSD. The participants to the World Ecotourism Summit, aware of the limitations of this consultative process to incorporate the input of the large variety of ecotourism stakeholders, particularly non-governmental organizations (NGOs) and local and indigenous communities, Recognize that ecotourism embraces the principles of sustainable tourism, concerning the economic, social and environmental impacts of tourism. It also embraces the following specific principles which distinguish it from the wider concept of sustainable tourism:
Acknowledge that tourism has significant and complex social, economic and environmental implications, which can bring both benefits and costs to the environment and local communities, Consider the growing interest of people in travelling to natural areas, both on land and sea, Recognize that ecotourism has provided a leadership role in introducing sustainability practices to the tourism sector, Emphasize that ecotourism should continue to contribute to make the overall tourism industry more sustainable, by increasing economic and social benefits for host communities, actively contributing to the conservation of natural resources and the cultural integrity of host communities, and by increasing awareness of all travellers towards the conservation of natural and cultural heritage, Recognize the cultural diversity associated with many natural areas, particularly because of the historical presence of local and indigenous communities, of which some have maintained their traditional knowledge, uses and practices many of which have proven to be sustainable over the centuries, Reiterate that
funding for the conservation and management of biodiversed and culturally
rich protected areas has been documented to be inadequate worldwide, Affirm that different forms of tourism, especially ecotourism, if managed in a sustainable manner can represent a valuable economic opportunity for local and indigenous populations and their cultures and for the conservation and sustainable use of nature for future generations and can be a leading source of revenues for protected areas, Emphasize that at the same time, wherever and whenever tourism in natural and rural areas is not properly planned, developed and managed, it contributes to the deterioration of natural landscapes, threats to wildlife and biodiversity, marine and coastal pollution, poor water quality, poverty, displacement of indigenous and local communities, and the erosion of cultural traditions, Acknowledge that ecotourism development must consider and respect the land and property rights, and, where recognized, the right to self-determination and cultural sovereignty of indigenous and local communities, including their protected, sensitive and sacred sites as well as their traditional knowledge, Stress that to achieve equitable social, economic and environmental benefits from ecotourism and other forms of tourism in natural areas, and to minimize or avoid potential negative impacts, participative planning mechanisms are needed that allow local and indigenous communities, in a transparent way, to define and regulate the use of their areas at the local level, including the right to opt out of tourism development, Understand that small and micro businesses seeking to meet social and environmental objectives are key partners in ecotourism and are often operating in a development climate that does not provide suitable financial and marketing support for ecotourism, Recognize that to improve the chances of survival of small-, medium-, and micro enterprises further understanding of the ecotourism market will be required through market research, specialized credit instruments for tourism businesses, grants for external costs, incentives for the use of sustainable energy and innovative technical solutions, and an emphasis on developing skills not only in business but within government and those seeking to support business solutions, Accept the need to avoid discrimination between people, whether by race, gender or other personal circumstances, with respect to their involvement in ecotourism as consumers or suppliers, Recognize that visitors have a responsibility to the sustainability of the destination and the global environment through their travel choice, behaviour and activities, and that therefore it is important to communicate to them the qualities and sensitivities of destinations, In light of the above, the participants to the World Ecotourism Summit, having met in Québec City, from 19 to 22 May 2002, produced a series of recommendations, which they propose to governments, the private sector, non-governmental organizations, community-based associations, academic and research institutions, inter-governmental organizations, international financial institutions, development assistance agencies, and indigenous and local communities, as follows:
1. formulate national, regional and local ecotourism policies and development strategies that are consistent with the overall objectives of sustainable development, and to do so through a wide consultation process with those who are likely to become involved in, affect, or be affected by ecotourism activities; 2. guarantee -in conjunction with local and indigenous communities, the private sector, NGOs and all ecotourism stakeholders- the protection of nature, local and indigenous cultures and specially traditional knowledge, genetic resources, rights to land and property, as well as rights to water; 3. ensure the involvement, appropriate participation and necessary coordination of all the relevant public institutions at the national, provincial and local level, (including the establishment of inter-ministerial working groups as appropriate) at different stages in the ecotourism process, while at the same time opening and facilitating the participation of other stakeholders in ecotourism-related decisions. Furthermore, adequate budgetary mechanisms and appropriate legislative frameworks need to be set up to allow implementation of the objectives and goals set up by these multistakeholder bodies; 4. include in the above framework the necessary regulatory and monitoring mechanisms at the national, regional and local levels, including objective sustainability indicators jointly agreed with all stakeholders and environmental impact assessment studies to be used as feedback mechanism. Results of monitoring should be made available to the general public; 5. develop regulatory mechanisms for internalization of environmental costs in all aspects of the tourism product, including international transport; 6. develop the local and municipal capacity to implement growth management tools such as zoning, and participatory land-use planning not only in protected areas but in buffer zones and other ecotourism development zones; 7. use internationally approved and reviewed guidelines to develop certification schemes, ecolabels and other voluntary initiatives geared towards sustainability in ecotourism, encouraging private operators to join such schemes and promoting their recognition by consumers. However, certification systems should reflect regional and local criteria. Build capacity and provide financial support to make these schemes accessible to small and medium enterprises (SMEs). In addition, monitoring and a regulatory framework are necessary to support effective implementation of these schemes; 8. ensure the provision of technical, financial and human resources development support to micro, small and medium-sized firms, which are the core of ecotourism, with a view to enable them to start, grow and develop their businesses in a sustainable manner; 9. define appropriate policies, management plans, and interpretation programmes for visitors, and earmark adequate sources of funding for natural areas to manage visitor numbers, protect vulnerable ecosystems, and the sustainable use of sensitive habitats. Such plans should include clear norms, direct and indirect management strategies, and regulations with the funds to ensure monitoring of social and environmental impacts for all ecotourism businesses operating in the area, as well as for tourists wishing to visit them; 10. include micro, small and medium-sized ecotourism companies, as well as community-based and NGO-based ecotourism operations in the overall promotional strategies and programmes carried out by the National Tourism Administration, both in the international and domestic markets; 11. encourage and support the creation of regional networks and cooperation for promotion and marketing of ecotourism products at the international and national levels; 12. provide incentives to tourism operators and other service providers (such as marketing and promotion advantages) for them to adopt ecotourism principles and make their operations more environmentally, socially and culturally responsible; 13. ensure that basic environmental and health standards are identified and met by all ecotourism development even in the most rural areas. This should include aspects such as site selection, planning, design, the treatment of solid waste, sewage, and the protection of watersheds, etc., and ensure also that ecotourism development strategies are not undertaken by governments without investment in sustainable infrastructure and the reinforcement of local/municipal capabilities to regulate and monitor such aspects; 14. institute baseline environmental impact assessment (EIA) studies and surveys that record the social environmental state of destinations, with special attention to endangered species, and invest, or support institutions that invest in research programmes on ecotourism and sustainable tourism; 15. support the further implementation of the international principles, guidelines and codes of ethics for sustainable tourism (e.g. such as those proposed by UNEP, WTO, the Convention on Biological Diversity, the UN Commission on Sustainable Development and the International Labor Organization) for the enhancement of international and national legal frameworks, policies and master plans to implement the concept of sustainable development into tourism; 16. consider as one option the reallocation of tenure and management of public lands, from extractive or intensive productive sectors to tourism combined with conservation, wherever this is likely to improve the net social, economic and environmental benefit for the community concerned; 17. promote and develop educational programmes addressed to children and young people to enhance awareness about nature conservation and sustainable use, local and indigenous cultures and their relationship with ecotourism; 18. promote collaboration between outbound tour operators and incoming operators and other service providers and NGOs at the destination to further educate tourists and influence their behaviour at destinations, especially those in developing countries; 19. incorporate sustainable transportation principles in the planning and design of access and transportation systems, and encourage tour operators and the travelling public to make soft mobility choices.
20. bear in mind that for ecotourism businesses to be sustainable, they need to be profitable for all stakeholders involved, including the projects' owners, investors, managers and employees, as well as the communities and the conservation organizations of natural areas where it takes place; 21. conceive, develop and conduct
their businesses minimizing negative effects on, and positively
contributing to, the conservation of sensitive ecosystems and the
environment in general, and directly benefiting and including local and
indigenous communities; 23. adopt as appropriate a reliable certification or other systems of voluntary regulation, such as ecolabels, in order to demonstrate to their potential clients their adherence to sustainability principles and the soundness of the products and services they offer; 24. cooperate with governmental and non-governmental organizations in charge of protected natural areas and conservation of biodiversity, ensuring that ecotourism operations are practised according to the management plans and other regulations prevailing in those areas, so as to minimize any negative impacts upon them while enhancing the quality of the tourism experience and contribute financially to the conservation of natural resources; 25. make increasing use of local materials and products, as well as local logistical and human resource inputs in their operations, in order to maintain the overall authenticity of the ecotourism product and increase the proportion of financial and other benefits that remain at the destination. To achieve this, private operators should invest in the training of the local workforce; 26. ensure that the supply chain used in building up an ecotourism operation is thoroughly sustainable and consistent with the level of sustainability aimed at in the final product or service to be offered to the customer; 27. work actively with indigenous leadership and local communities to ensure that indigenous cultures and communities are depicted accurately and with respect, and that their staff and guests are well and accurately informed regarding local and indigenous sites, customs and history; 28. promote among their clients an ethical and environmentally conscious behaviour vis-à-vis the ecotourism destinations visited, such as by environmental education or by encouraging voluntary contributions to support local community or conservation initiatives; 29. generate awareness among all management and staff of local, national and global environmental and cultural issues through ongoing environmental education, and support the contribution that they and their families can make to conservation, community economic development and poverty alleviation; 30. diversify their offer by developing a wide range of tourist activities at a given destination and by extending their operations to different destinations in order to spread the potential benefits of ecotourism and to avoid overcrowding some selected ecotourism sites, thus threatening their long-term sustainability. In this regard, private operators are urged to respect, and contribute to, established visitor impact management systems of ecotourism destinations; 31. create and develop funding mechanisms for the operation of business associations or cooperatives that can assist with ecotourism training, marketing, product development, research and financing; 32. ensure an equitable distribution of financial benefits from ecotourism revenues between international, outbound and incoming tour operators, local service providers and local communities through appropriate instruments and strategic alliances; 33. formulate and implement company policies for sustainability with a view to applying them in each part of their operations.
34. provide technical, financial, educational, capacity building and other support to ecotourism destinations, host community organizations, small businesses and the corresponding local authorities in order to ensure that appropriate policies, development and management guidelines, and monitoring mechanisms are being applied towards sustainability; 35. monitor and conduct research on the actual impacts of ecotourism activities upon ecosystems, biodiversity, local and indigenous cultures and the socio-economic fabric of the ecotourism destinations; 36. cooperate with public and private organizations ensuring that the data and information generated through research is channeled to support decision-making processes in ecotourism development and management; 37. cooperate with research institutions to develop the most adequate and practical solutions to ecotourism development issues.
38. develop and assist in the implementation of national and local policy and planning guidelines and evaluation frameworks for ecotourism and its relationships with biodiversity conservation, socio-economic development, respect of human rights, poverty alleviation, nature conservation and other objectives of sustainable development, and to intensify the transfer of such know-how to all countries. Special attention should be paid to countries in a developing stage or least developed status, to small island developing States and to countries with mountain areas, considering that 2002 is also designated as the International Year of Mountains by the UN; 39. build capacity for regional, national and local organizations for the formulation and application of ecotourism policies and plans, based on international guidelines; 40. develop or adopt, as appropriate, international standards and financial mechanisms for ecotourism certification systems that take into account the needs of small and medium enterprises and facilitates their access to those procedures, and support their implementation; 41. incorporate multistakeholder dialogue processes into policies, guidelines and projects at the global, regional and national levels for the exchange of experiences between countries and sectors involved in ecotourism; 42. strengthen efforts in identifying the factors that determine the success or failure of ecotourism ventures throughout the world, in order to transfer such experiences and best practices to other nations, by means of publications, field missions, training seminars and technical assistance projects; UNEP, WTO and other international organizations should continue and expand the international dialogue after the Summit on sustainable tourism and ecotourism issues, for example by conducting periodical reviews of ecotourism development through international and regional forums; 43. adapt as necessary their financial facilities and lending conditions and procedures to suit the needs of micro-, small- and medium-sized ecotourism firms that are the core of this industry, as a condition to ensure its long term economic sustainability; 44. develop the internal human resource capacity to support sustainable tourism and ecotourism as a development sub-sector in itself and to ensure that internal expertise, research, and documentation are in place to oversee the use of ecotourism as a sustainable development tool; 45. develop financial mechanisms for training and capacity building, that takes into account the time and resources required to successfully enable local communities and indigenous peoples to participate equitably in ecotourism development.
In addition to all the references to local and indigenous communities made in the preceding paragraphs of this Declaration, (in particular para. 5, 8, 9 and 10 on page 2; para. 1 on page 3; in A 2 and 17; B 21 and 27; C 35; D 45) participants addressed the following recommendations to the local and indigenous communities themselves: 46. As part of a community vision for development, that may include ecotourism, define and implement a strategy for improving collective benefits for the community through ecotourism development including human, physical, financial, and social capital development, and improved access to technical information; 47. strengthen, nurture and encourage the community's ability to maintain and use traditional skills, particularly home-based arts and crafts, agricultural produce, traditional housing and landscaping that use local natural resources in a sustainable manner.
48. recognize the need to apply the principles of sustainable development to tourism, and the exemplary role of ecotourism in generating economic, social and environmental benefits; 49. integrate the role of tourism, including ecotourism, in the outcomes expected at WSSD. Québec City, Canada, 22 May 2002 SARCE PROCEEDINGS The South Asia Regional Conference on Ecotourism was held in Gangtok, Sikkim India, from the 21st January to the 24th of January 2002. The Ecotourism and Conservation Society of Sikkim (ECOSS) organized it in collaboration with The International Ecotourism Society (TIES) and The Mountain Institute (TMI). This was one of the six regional conferences to be held as a run up to the World Ecotourism Summit to be held in May 2002 in Quebec, Canada under the auspices of the World Tourism Organisation. One hundred and seventeen delegates came from around South Asia and the United States. There were also some French, Dutch and Australian delegates. Due to problems related to travel and visa, delegates from Pakistan and Bangladesh could not make it. No representatives from Maldives attended due to Ministerial Conference on Eco-tourism held in Maldives shortly after the Sikkim Conference. The definition of ecotourism accepted for the conference was as given by TIES: "Ecotourism is responsible travel to natural areas that conserves the environment and sustains the well-being of local people." The four days of deliberations under guidelines provided by TIES and UNEP came up with some interesting outcomes. Ecotourism Planning - Key Findings · Conflicting policies and regulations · Lack of community participation in planning · Low recognition and value given to ecotourism · Uncoordinated and arbitrary decision-making · Centrally controlled policies · Role of Government departments is not specified. · Lack of consultation of communities in decision making processes. Greater attention needs to be paid to the role of local communities in decision making, planning and benefiting from ecotourism activities. Communities are key custodians of natural resources and can play an active and critical role in conservation of valuable biodiversity, Mr. K.T. Gyalsen Hon'ble Minister Tourism, Govt. of Sikkim, Mr. Pawan Chamling Chief Minister, Ms. Megan Eplerwood President, The International Eco-Tourism Society, Mr. PD Rai Chairman ECOSS and at the same time they can derive economic and social benefits from ecotourism if they are included in the decision making and planning process. The local communities need to be consulted and affirmation received from them through institutionalised process like local community institutions (the Panchayati Raj Institutions in India and Nepal) for commencing an ecotourism venture in their regions. In some countries such as Nepal, there are innovative policies such as sharing of protected area entry fees that support communities in ecotourism; others such as India, Sri Lanka and Bhutan are also taking important steps to include people who live in protected and natural areas. Other Key findings includes · Developing financial lending policies that encourage environmentally responsible enterprises. · The need to increase awareness among policy of the potential role of ecotourism in conservation and economic development. · Supporting regional planning initiatives for ecotourism, e.g. a focus on the Himalaya (including Nepal, Bhutan, Pakistan and relevant states of India), the Ocean (Sri Lanka, Maldives and states of India) · Better coordination between government, private sector and other stakeholders in planning and inclusion of ecotourism in tourism and other policies at the national and state levels. Ecotourism Product Development - key findings Several success stories from the region highlighted the innovation that is taking place - Tourindia working with local people who collected an in appropriate quantity of cinnamon bark from the forest that have become guides, Nepal Village Resorts working with villages to provide a unique cultural experience, Ranweli Holidays in Sri Lanka that is working with communities in mangrove areas. Although the region has tremendous natural and cultural assets from mountains to oceans, deserts to forests and rich variety of cultures and cultural attractions, there is a great deal that can be done to develop and promote ecotourism products even further. Amongst a variety of issues, participants discussed the following: · The need to educate domestic and international visitors before they arrive at destinations as well as providing good interpretation during their visit. At the heart of ecotourism is a unique and quality experience and we must work on improving this through better publicity materials, guide services, visitor centres, pre-departure information, etc. · Better access to credit and loans that encourage entrepreneurs to take risk to develop ecotourism enterprises especially at the community level and small and medium scale operations. · Better market research for developing the right products that will be profitable, generate benefits for conservation and host communities and provide visitor satisfaction. As a region and within countries there is a great variability in the quantity and quality of data collection that helps in product development. Government, entrepreneurs and research institutions should be working together to generate relevant and useful information for product development. · Recognise domestic and regional visitors as an important market in ecotourism. · Build capacity for ecotourism development at all levels. · Internationally, it was found that there is very little recognition and hence all must work toward bringing greater focus to ecotourism. One way out was to link it to international pro poor and biodiversity agenda. International funding and finding mechanisms for diverting donor funds was also a key area of interest. Regulations and Monitoring - key findings Participants recognised the important roles of regulation and monitoring in ecotourism as critical to ensuring the success of ecotourism. Generally these are the areas that have not received sufficient attention. Amongst a range of issues participants discussed the following: · The need to develop a variety of regulations - self regulation through codes of conduct, guidelines and so on, and legal regulations that help reduce negative impacts such as restricting number of visitors to the sensitive sites. · The need to establish and enforce standards for ecotourism facilities (lodges, hotels, etc.) and activities (trekking, rafting, etc.) that are appropriate to the region. Participants recommended that such standards should be established at both regional and national levels by multi-stakeholders bodies that represent government, private sector and NGOs, CBOs and others. · The need to ease and facilitate movement of international and regional visitors within South Asia. Issues like currency and visa regulations hamper the movement of tourist. This needs to be addressed at multilateral and bilateral levels. · Ecotourism is an important tool for conservation and development of a region, but there is variable data on its current and potential impact. Those working in ecotourism need to work together to identify useful indicators, other than just visitor numbers that help in planning and management and in making a case for promoting and including ecotourism in national and state policies. · There was concern on the equitable distribution of benefits to the local community and other stakeholders. There was also a need to understand cultural impact; an assessment of this was necessary if long-term significant contribution of ecotourism as a way forward for both enhancement of equity amongst stakeholders, and conservation of natural areas are to happen effectively. · The role of local community institutions in regulation and monitoring should be enhanced and a coordinated multi-stakeholder approach needs to be created for effective regulation and monitoring of the impact of ecotourism activities in the area CONCLUSIONS OF THE INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE ON ECOTOURISM IN WATER AREAS: “ECOAQUA”
The participants at the conference gave a wide array of presentations, whose scope ranged from the global to the local, and which touched on the different aspects related to ecotourism in protected areas, and especially water areas.
The main aspects highlighted by the different speakers can be summarized in the following points:
1. To adopt, disseminate and foster the application of the principles and recommendations contained in the Quebec Declaration on Ecotourism and in the Plan of Action agreed upon in Johannesburg.
2. To insist on the need for adequate financing sources for the implementation of the above-mentioned recommendations, in both the public and private sectors, especially for small and medium-sized enterprises that operate in the ecotourism sector.
3. To reiterate the need to use protected areas and for the tourism carried out in them to be properly managed, based on scientific knowledge.
4. Tourism is one of the principal uses that are to be developed in protected areas, but such tourism must respect carrying capacities and be carried out away from the most fragile areas.
5. Ecotourism in protected areas must involve local populations, who in turn must respect the zoning and management plans of such areas.
6. To integrate ecosystem-based tourism products with cultural and historical elements of their surroundings.
7. To promote cooperation at all levels, mainly:
a. a. Between environment and tourism administrations b. b. Among the different administrative levels (from the global to the local) c. c. Among the public sector, the private sector and the different NGOs d. d. Among the protected areas of different characteristics, in different regions and different countries, especially twinning programmes between Spain and Latin America.
8. To highlight the role of ecotourism as an educational instrument and as a tool for raising awareness regarding environmental issues, for both the local population and visitors.
9. To underline the importance of certification and ecolabels for the commercialization of well-managed and sustainable ecotourism products; special emphasis should be given to integrated territorial brands.
At 8.00 p.m. on Friday, 18 October 2002, gathered together in an Assembly, the speakers, lecturers and participants of the Conference unanimously agreed to approve the nine points indicated above as the Conference’s conclusions, emphasizing the need to communicate them to the administrations of their respective Communities and Countries, making a commitment to give them greater publicity among the general public and to pursue their implementation in all the fields that affect the development of ecotourism in the world. THE RAMSAR CONVENTION: The Convention on Wetlands, signed in Ramsar, Iran, in 1971, is an intergovernmental treaty which provides the framework for national action and international cooperation for the conservation and wise use of wetlands and their resources. There are presently 150 Contracting Parties to the Convention, with 1578 wetland sites, totaling 133.8 million hectares, designated for inclusion in the Ramsar List of Wetlands of International Importance Mission Statement: "The Convention's mission is the conservation and wise use of all wetlands through local, regional and national actions and international cooperation, as a contribution towards achieving sustainable development throughout the world" (Ramsar COP8, 2002). The Convention on Wetlands is an intergovernmental treaty adopted on 2 February 1971 in the Iranian city of Ramsar, on the southern shore of the Caspian Sea. Thus, though nowadays the name of the Convention is usually written "Convention on Wetlands (Ramsar, Iran, 1971)", it has come to be known popularly as the "Ramsar Convention". Ramsar is the first of the modern global intergovernmental treaties on conservation and wise use of natural resources, but, compared with more recent ones, its provisions are relatively straightforward and general. Over the years, the Conference of the Contracting Parties (the main decision-making body of the Convention, composed of delegates from all the Member States) has further developed and interpreted the basic tenets of the treaty text and succeeded in keeping the work of the Convention abreast of changing world perceptions, priorities, and trends in environmental thinking. The official name of the treaty – The Convention on Wetlands of International Importance especially as Waterfowl Habitat – reflects its original emphasis on the conservation and wise use of wetlands primarily to provide habitat for waterbirds. Over the years, however, the Convention has broadened its scope to cover all aspects of wetland conservation and wise use, recognizing wetlands as ecosystems that are extremely important for biodiversity conservation in general and for the well-being of human communities. For this reason, the increasingly common use of the short form of the treaty’s title, the "Convention on Wetlands", is entirely appropriate. The Convention entered into force in 1975 and as of 1 May 2003 has 136 Contracting Parties. More than 1280 wetlands have been designated for inclusion in the List of Wetlands of International Importance, covering some 108.7 million hectares (1.87 million km2), more than the surface area of France, Germany, and Switzerland combined. UNESCO serves as Depositary for the Convention, but its administration has been entrusted to a secretariat known as the "Ramsar Bureau", which is housed in the headquarters of IUCN–The World Conservation Union in Gland, Switzerland, under the authority of the Conference of the Parties and the Standing Committee of the Convention. Why do countries join the Ramsar Convention? Membership in the Ramsar Convention: · entails an endorsement of the principles that the Convention represents, facilitating the development at national level of policies and actions, including legislation that helps nations to make the best possible use of their wetland resources in their quest for sustainable development; · presents an opportunity for a country to make its voice heard in the principal intergovernmental forum on the conservation and wise use of wetlands; · brings increased publicity and prestige for the wetlands designated for the List of Wetlands of International Importance, and hence increased possibility of support for conservation and wise use measures; · brings access to the latest information and advice on application of the Convention’s internationally-accepted standards, such as criteria for identifying wetlands of international importance, guidelines on application of the wise use concept, and guidelines on management planning in wetlands; · brings access to expert advice on national and site-related problems of wetland conservation and management through contacts with Ramsar Bureau personnel and consultants and through application of the Ramsar Advisory Mission mechanism when appropriate; and · encourages international cooperation on wetland issues and brings the possibility of support for wetland projects, either through the Convention’s own Small Grants Fund or through the Convention’s contacts with multilateral and bilateral external support agencies. What are the commitments of Parties joining the Ramsar Convention? When countries join the Convention, they are enlisting in an international effort to ensure the conservation and wise use of wetlands. The treaty includes four main commitments that the Contracting Parties have agreed to by joining. 1. Listed sites The first obligation under the Convention is to designate at least one wetland for inclusion in the List of Wetlands of International Importance (the "Ramsar List") and to promote its conservation, including, where appropriate, its wise use. Selection for the Ramsar List should be based on the wetland’s significance in terms of ecology, botany, zoology, limnology, or hydrology. The Contracting Parties have adopted specific criteria and guidelines for identifying sites that qualify for inclusion in the List of Wetlands of International Importance. 2. Wise use Under the Convention there is a general obligation for the Contracting Parties to include wetland conservation considerations in their national land-use planning. They have undertaken to formulate and implement this planning so as to promote, as far as possible, "the wise use of wetlands in their territory" (Article 3.1 of the treaty). The Conference of the Contracting Parties has approved guidelines and additional guidance on how to achieve "wise use", which has been interpreted as being synonymous with "sustainable use". 3. Reserves and training Contracting Parties have also undertaken to establish nature reserves in wetlands, whether or not they are included in the Ramsar List, and they are also expected to promote training in the fields of wetland research, management and wardening. 4. International cooperation Contracting Parties have also agreed to consult with other Contracting Parties about implementation of the Convention, especially in regard to transfrontier wetlands, shared water systems, and shared species. Over the years, the Conference of the Contracting Parties has interpreted and elaborated upon these four major obligations included within the text of the treaty, and it has developed guidelines for assisting the Parties in their implementation. These guidelines are published in the Ramsar Handbook series. Reporting Contracting Parties report on progress in implementing their commitments under the Convention by submission of triennial National Reports to the Conference of the Contracting Parties. The National Reports become part of the public record. The Conference of the Contracting Parties The implementation of the Ramsar Convention is a continuing partnership between the Contracting Parties, the Standing Committee, and the Convention Secretariat (the Ramsar Bureau), with the advice of the Scientific and Technical Review Panel (STRP) and the support of the International Organization Partners. Every three years, government representatives of the Contracting Parties meet as the Conference of the Contracting Parties (COP), the policy-making organ of the Convention which reviews the general trends in the implementation of the Convention as reflected in the National Reports and adopts decisions to improve the way in which the Convention works. The programme of each meeting of the Conference also includes a series of technical sessions which analyze issues of importance in the field of wetland conservation and wise use, including further interpretation and development of the key Convention concepts. Ramsar COPs have gained the reputation of being highly effective events, allowing an active involvement and participation of the non-governmental and academic community. Ordinary meetings of the Conference of the Contracting Parties have been held at: 1. Cagliari, Italy, 1980; 2. Groningen, Netherlands, 1984; 3. Regina, Canada, 1987; 4. Montreux, Switzerland, 1990; 5. Kushiro, Japan, 1993; 6. Brisbane, Australia, 1996; 7. San José, Costa Rica, 1999; 8. Valencia, Spain, 2002; 9. Kampala, Uganda (scheduled). The Standing Committee The Standing Committee meets annually to carry out interim activity between each COP on matters previously approved by the Conference; prepare documentation for consideration at the next COP; supervise implementation of policy by the Ramsar Bureau and execution of the Bureau’s budget; and decide upon applications for project support from the Ramsar Small Grants Fund. The Standing Committee consists of 13 Contracting Parties elected on a proportional basis from the six Ramsar regions – Africa, Asia, Europe, Neotropics, North America, and Oceania – as well as the host countries of the most recent meeting and the next meeting of the COP. The Contracting Parties which host the Ramsar Bureau and Wetlands International are invited to participate as Permanent Observers, and the "International Organization Partners" (see below) are invited to participate in an advisory capacity. The secretariat The Ramsar Convention Bureau is the permanent secretariat for the Convention and carries out the day-to-day coordination of the Convention’s activities. The Bureau is headed by a Secretary General, who supervises the work of a small number (currently 16) of technical, communications and administrative staff, four interns, and five outposted members of the MedWet Coordination Unit in Athens, Greece. Ramsar staff members work in several languages (notably the Convention’s three official languages, English, French, and Spanish) and provide expertise in a range of disciplines. Consultants are recruited from time to time as needed. The Scientific and Technical Review Panel The Scientific and Technical Review Panel (STRP) provides scientific and technical advice to the Conference of the Contracting Parties. The STRP is composed of 13 individual members with appropriate scientific and technical knowledge, selected from the six Ramsar regions, and representatives of the four International Organization Partners. Other relevant organizations also contribute to the work of the STRP as observers. The International Organization Partners The Conference of the Parties may confer the status of International Organization Partner to international organizations, both intergovernmental and non-governmental, that "contribute on a regular basis and to the best of their abilities to the further development of the policies and technical and scientific tools of the Convention and to their application". So far, four international non-government organizations that have been associated with the Convention since its inception have been recognized as IOPs. They are BirdLife International, IUCN–The World Conservation Union, Wetlands International, and the World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF).
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